I've not cleaned this up, at least not very much. Interesting to me, hope
it is to you. The article is found in
Dictionary of Deities & Demons in the Bible [2nd edition]
Holy Spirit ה ךו הקדשׁ πνευμ ἃϒιον
I. The expression 'holy spirit' occurs only three times in the OT (Ps
51:13; 51:12 Create me a clean heart, O God; and renew a steadfast spirit
within me.
" JPS 51:13 Cast me not away from Thy presence; and take not Thy holy
spirit from me. 51:14 Restore unto me the joy of Thy salvation; and let a
willing spirit uphold me." Isa 63:10,11) " JPS 63:10 But they rebelled,
and grieved His holy spirit; therefore He was turned to be their enemy,
Himself fought against them.
63:11 Then His people remembered the days of old, the days of Moses: 'Where
is He that brought them up out of the sea with the shepherds of His flock?
Where is He that put His holy spirit in the midst of them?" but is part of
a large semantic field in which rűah, referring to some form of divine
action, is the central component (about 250 times in the OT), in the NT the
expression occurs 84 times whereas pneuma, referring to the divine spirit
(with or without attributes), occurs about 350 times, Within the Bible.
neither rűah nor pneuma are used as a divine name, They are not worshipped
as divine beings, The religious use of the words derives from general,
non-religious usage, The basic meaning of both words is 'air in motion',
either as 'wind' or as breath, 'Wind' as an action beyond human control
easily develops into a metaphor of divine or supernatural action, 'Breath'
is inherent in every living creature and hence becomes an equivalent of
'life' and 'soul' as opposed to 'death' and 'dead', It develops into the
meaning 'spirit' i.ee that which distinguishes man from other creatures, In
the realm of the divine it means 'spirit' as a quality or attribute of the
deity as distinct from the earthly world,
II. ln the OT, the two meanings of Hebew rűah, 'wind' and 'breath',
converge when the word is connected with Yahweh as his 'spirit' (23 times)
or as the 'spirit of God` (l6 times), or with a possessive pronoun
referring to the deity,
The most important areas of divine action in which the divine rűah is
involved are
(a) the charismatic leadership in the early period before kingship, and
(b) ecstatic prophecy,
(a) Charismatic leadership: In times of distress and oppression Yahweh
singles out leaders to liberate the oppressed people and empowers them
through his rűah to fulfil this task. Often the spirit enables them to
perform miraculous acts of military or even physical strength. l Sam 11:6
shows that the spirit may also arouse anger. Usually these experiences are
transitory. l Sam ll6:ll3 tells that the spirit of God came upon David
'from that day onward`; this marks the transition from an occasional action
of the spirit to a frequent repetition of the same experience which leads
to the idea of a permanent endowment The connection between king ship and
the spirit, so prominent in Saul and David, is not found in earlier texts,
It returns in prophecies of an eschatological saviour, king or prophet
(Isa 11:2; 42:1; 61:1).
(b) Ecstatic prophecy: in 1 Sam 10:10 Saul meets a company of prophets
(hebel hannĕbîʿîm) who are in ecstasy (hitnabbē) and Saul soon shares their
experience when the spirit seizes him. Nothing is said about their
prophesying activities, but in10:6 Saul is told that they come with harp,
tamhourine, flute and lyre and that he, like them, will become another
man. A similar story is told in 1 Sam 19:18-24: Saul`s messengers meet a
company of prophets (lahăqat hannĕbîʿîm),
LXX ekklēsia prophētōn) in ecstasy (nibbĕʿîm, niphal), with Samuel standing
at their head and soon they share this experience as the spirit of God
comes upon them,
This happens also to the second and the third group of messengers and
finally even to Saul himself, These stories show that: such companies of
prophets operating under the influence of the spirit: of God were no
exception, Samuel`s participation implies that such colllective ecstasy was
considered legitimate within Jahwistic religion.
Apart from Num 11:16-30, where the moment of ecstatic behaviour serves to
legitimatize the administrative office of the elders, no outbursts of the
spirit are recorded in pre-conquest traditions, Presumably collective
ecstatic experiences as recorded in 1 Sam 10 and 19, though familiar in
many cultures (cf, J, LINDBLOM l962:58), originate in Canaanitc religion
(see RINGGREN l982:l95-l96), This is confirmed by the story of 1 Kgs
18:20-40, where the prophets of Baal are said to 'rave` (yitnabbĕʿû), as 1
Sam 10:5-13 and 19:20-24).
This type of collective prophecy developed into a more institutional form
in the pre-exilic period A classic example Is ll Kgs 22:5-28: the king of
Israel assembles four hundred prophets to give him an oracle on his plans
to attack Ramoth-Gilead, Apparently they belong to the royal court, Over
against these institutional prophets there Is the solitary prophet Micaiah,
a representative of the type of prophets like Elijah and Elisha, Both the
royal prophets and the independent prophet claim to possess the spirit of
Yahweh and the verb NBʾ is applied to both in the meaning 'to prophesy',
This is also the case in the prophetic writings, esp, in Jeremiah and
Ezekiel, It is significant that, apart from Mic 3:8, rűah Is never used
to authorize the prophets who claim to speak the word of Yahweh.
The reason for this Is probably that the prophets whom they considered to
be false prophets claimed to possess the spirit as in ll Kgs 22:24 (see
ALBERTZ l979:748-749), In post-exilic prophetic texts prophecy and the
spirit are again connected (cf, Isa 6l:l, Zech 7:l2, Ezek passim: the
spirit not only falls upon him and makes him speak the word of Yahweh but
also 'moves' him to various places where he receives messages to proclaim,
cf,3:l2, l4; 8:3; ll:l,24; 43:5), not as a real event but as a visionary
experience, as stated explicitly in 11:24,
The idiom in connection with rűah as 'wind' or 'breath' (as e, g, blowing
[NŠB, Isa 40:7] or 'bursting forth' [NSʿ], Num 111:31]) Is not transferred
to the usage of rűah as sprit, The. spirit-idiom serves to express the way
in which the spirit is experienced, either as moving towards people or as
being in or with them, A distinction can he drawn between animistic and
dynamistic idiom, in animistic idiom the spirit is pictured as a more or
less personal being who 'comes upon' people (HYH ʿal, Num 24:2, Jmig 3:l0;
ll:29; l Sam l9:20,23; 2 Chr l5:l; 20:l4), or 'over powers' them (ṢLḤʿ al,
lit, 'to be strong', mostly rendered as 'to t:ake possession, Judg l4:6,
l9; l5:4; l Sam l0:6,l0; ll:6; l6:l3; l8:l0), or falls upon' them (NPLʿal,
Ezek ll:5). The spirit 'moves' (PʿM, Judg l3:25) carries away` (NŚʾl Kgs
l8:l2; 2:l6; Ezek 3,l4; 8,3; ll,l; 43,5). The spirit 'departs` from people
(SWR, l Sam l6: l4) or 'passes` from one person to another (ʿBR,l Kgs
22:24; 2 Chr l8:23). in dynamistic idiom the spirit 'clothes` or
'surrounds` (LBŠ, mostly rendered 'takes possession`, Judg 6:34; lChr
l2:l9; 2 Chr 24: 20), People may he 'filled with spirit (ML ʾ xod 28:3;
3ll:3; 35:2l.3l). The spirit is 'poured out upon` all people collectively
(ʿRH, Isa 32:l5; SPK, Ezek 39:29; Joel 3:l-2; Zech l2:l0; YŞQ Isa 44:3),
When the coming of the spirit is not experienced as a momentary event it
results in enduring presence of the sprit. This state Is expressed In a
much simpler idiom in which the distinction between animistic and
dynamistic Is less prominent, The idiom consists of two different phrases:
that of the spirit 'resting upon' people (NWḤ ʿal, Num ll:25-26; 2 Kgs
2:l5; Isa ll:2, often with out a verb as e.g, Num ll:l7) which may have
been understood originally as animistic, and that of the spirit 'being in
or with' people (HYH bě, Gen 4ll:38; Num 27: l8; Isa 6l:l) which may have
been of dynamistic origin. They are, however, no longer connected with
different concepts of the spirt.
In the OT the spirit is primarily an instrumeIIt of divine action upon
individual or on the community, not in a metaphoricai way (like 'hand' or
'arm') but as belonging to God or even as a part of God. in Isa 30:l and
40:l3 the spirit is mentioned in juxta position to God himself, thus
preparing the way to a concept of God as spirit (John 4:24). The OT does
not represent the spirit as a divine being connected with, yet distinct
from God it is aiways functioning as an intermediary between God and
mankind,
The phrase 'holy spirit', so prominent in the NT and subsequent Christian
literature, appears in the OT only three times, ln Ps 5l:l3 the psalmist
prays that God will not drive him from his face, i.e. from his presence,
and will not take away from him his holy spirit. The parallelism suggests
that the divine spirit stands for the princIple of life In the human
person: the plea of the psalmist is that: he stay alive, In Isa 63:l0-ll
there is a doublle referencc to the spirit of God's holiness, representing
his holy presence arnong his people, When they sln and rehel against God
they grieve his representative in them, the holy spirit.
III. Pneuma occurs 379 times in the NT,
In the singullar it always means 'spirit', either divine or human (except
in 2 Thess 2:8). The plural usually refers to unclean Spirits., angels
(Heb l:7.l4 or to multiple manifestations of the divine spirit (Rev l :4;
3:l;4:5;5:6).
The word Pneuma occurs independently, though in nearly two-thirds of the
cases charactcrized as hagion, 'holy'; less frequent are the occurrences in
genitival constructions with such tern:Is as theou, kyriou (either God or
Christ), Christou or Iesou, It also occurs with following qualifying
genitive e.g, 'truth' (John l4:l7; l5:26; l6:l3, or as a hendiadys with
quallifying nouns, as e, g, 'power' (ll Cor 2:4), In the imagery used in
connection wIth the spirit, two groups of related images can
bedistinguished, In the one the spirit is described in a personal way,
either as subject or as object; in the other the spirit is described as a
power, force or influence, either material or immaterial. The language
used is partly derived from biblical idiom and partlly from contemporary
hellllenislic marerial, The following Is a representatIve survey, in the
capacity of a person, the spirit Is descrihed as beIng sent by God (Gal
4:6, exapesteiln. In 4:4 used with reference to the son of God,l Pet 2:l2,
the Paraclete sayings in John l4:26; l5:26), or as coming upon people (Acts
l:8; l9:6; John l6:l3), presumably to stay with them and to become active
when callle upon (like the daimiōn paredros, see Reiling l973:88-90), In
particuiar in Acts this personal idiom is used: the spirit speaks (8:29;
l0:l9; ll:l2; l3:2; 20:23), sends (l3:4), forbids (l6:6) and appoints
(20:28), Alternatively people can lie to (5:3), tempt (5:9), resist (7:5l),
grieve (Eph 4:30) or insuit (Heb l0:29) the spirit,
This usage paves the way to later doctrinai developments,
Otherwise, the spirit is described as being poured out like rain (Acts
2:l7- l8,33; l0:45, . cf, Rom 5:5); people are filled with the spirit (Acts
2:4; 4:8.3l; 9:l7; l3:9) as a moment ary experience or are full of the
spirit (Acts 6:3; 7:55;ll:24; l3:52; Eph 5:l8) as a permanent endowment.
The same imagery is found in helieIIisric sources (see Reiling
l973:ll4-l2l), Baplism in or with the spirit (Mark l:8 and par, John l:33;
cf. lCor l2: l3) is a metaphor derived from immersion In water. Like
the Delphian enthousiasmos the spirit can be quenched (cf. Van Unnik
ll968). The idiom of the gift, or the giving of the spirit is also part of
non-persoIal usage (Luke ll:l3; , John 3:34; Acts 8:l8; l5:8; l Car l2:7; l
Thess 4:8; l John 3:24; 4:l3). The generall phrase 'to receive the spirit'
(John 20:22; Acts 2:38; 8:l5,l7,l9; l0:47; l9:2; Rom 8:l5; 2 Cor ll:4; Gall
3:2, l4) is ambiguous,
In the gospel tradition , Jesus is pictured as a pneumatikos, a man full of
the spirit and acting In the power of the spirit The spirit was bestowed on
him Immediately after havIng been baptized by , John, Mark l:l0 describes
the descendIng of the spirit as a visionary experience of Jesus himself,
Matt 3:l6 and Luke 3:2l-22 as a visible event, John refers to it as an
event observed by John the Baptist, The symbol of the dove (not mentioned
in , John) may refer to bat qōi because of the following proclamation from
heaven (cf. H, Greeven, περιδτερά, TWNT 6 [l959] 68, Dove) or to the image
of the so-called 'soul-bird' ('Seelenvogel`, see A, Schimmel, Seelenvogel,
RGG 5 [l96l] l637), , but it plays no part in the symbolism of the holly
spirit until much late:r, This common tradition identifies Jesus as the
eschatologicai prophet of Isa 6l:ll, anointed with the spirit (cf,
llQMelch l8; Luke 4:l8-2l; Acts l0;38).
The first act of the spirit is to send Jesus into thIe wilderness to be
tempted by the devil, The words used by the evangelists are indicarive of
their respective ideas of the relationship between , Jesus and the spirit,
In Mark l:l2 the spirit drives him (ekballei a technicall term of
exorcisms) more or less violently, in Matt 4:l he Is led by the spirit
(anēchthē hypo tou pneumatos, a neutral phrase), In Luke 4:l, Jesus Is the
subject of the clause: he Ieturns fullll of the spirit (plērēs pneumatos
hagiou, in Acts 6:3.5.8; 7:55; ll:24 used to describe permanent endowment
with the spirit) and he is led in,:not into, the wiiderness under the
Influence of the spirit (en töi pneumatos, a less explicit phrase than
those of Mark and Matthew),
This picture of a spirit-endowed prophet is also reflected in Luke: Jesus
returns to Galilee endowed with the power of the spirit (en dynamei
pneumatos 4ll4) and in the synagogue of Nazareth he identifies himsellf as
the spirit- anointed prophet of Isa 6l:l
In the synoptic report of Jesus' ministry the spirit is mentioned only
twice: in the logion of the sin against the holly spirit (Mark 3:29; Matt
l2:3l,32; Luke l2:l0 but placed in a different content) , and in the Q
logion of Matt l2:28 (Luke ll:20 has 'finger' instead of pneuma), inserted
in the Marcan Beelzebul-controversy preceding the logion, The common
element in these texts is that Jesus drives out demons through the spirit
and to ascrihe this to Beelzehul is an unforgivable snI, The spirit both
authorizes and empowers Jesus to drive out the demons (cf. Luke 4:36, Their
overthrow is proof of the presence of the kingdom of God and implicitly of
the power of the spirit through Jesus, ln Matthew and Luke the story of
Jesus' public ministry is preceded by stories about his birth in which the
spirit plays an important part, Matt l:l8-23 telis that before having had
intercourse with Joseph Mary was found to be pregnant of the holy spirit
(ek pneumatos hagiou) and that this was confirmed to Joseph by an angel in
a dream,
In Luke the angelGabriell tells Mary that she wili have a son and that the
holy spirit will come upon her and that the power of the Most High will
overshadow her, Therefore her son to be born wili be cailed 'holy 'and 'son
of God', Matthew's statement is too short to admit of any interpretation of
the role of the spirit, The Lucan version however, is more explicit: the
spirit comes upon Mary (eperchomai) as upon the disciples at Pentecost
(Acts l:8; the actual story has 'filled with the holy spirit', 2:4).
The overshadowing (eptskiazein) of Mary by the power of the Most High
recalls the cloud which overshadows Jesus and those with him in the
transfiguration story (Mark 9:7 and par, ) and the cloud overshadowing the
tent of meeting and the glory of God filling the tent (Exod 40:35 LXX; Num
9:l8; l0:34-36, cf, Deut 33: l2 LXX; lsa 4:5). These parallels refer to
the active presence of God in a general way but not to anything near the
conception of a human or divine being as in Luke l:34. The association of
the spirit with conception cannot therefore be explained in terms of this
usage, nor in terms of the divine spirit over shadowing and obscuring nous
when entering a human person (Philo, Somn l ll9, see Leisegang l922:25-27).
Whatever the origin and background of this image, the intention of both
statements in Matt l:l8 ndi Luke l:34 is to connect Jesus with the spirit
from his conception on, Yet this does not keep the evangelists from
recording the common tradition of the spirit descending upon Jesus at
baptism, The fact that no where in the rest of the NT the so-called
virginal conception is mentioned or alluded to suggests that it is a
secondary tratdition, not supported by the pre-gospel tradition nor by the
primitive teaching as transparent from the Pauline letters. DespIte Its
great impact on later doctrinal developrnents the notion of the virginai
conccption does not belong to the earliest picture of Jesus as the
messenger of the kingdom of God, anointed with the hoiy spirit (for a
theological interpretation of these texts see R, F, Brown, The Birth of
the Messiah [New York l9932]),
The experience of the spirit is one of the most characteristic features in
the life of the earliest Christian communities, The promise of its coming,
recorded in the gospel tradition (Mark l:8 and par.; Luke 24:49; Acts l:8;
John 7:39; 20:22; see also the Paraclete sayings in l4:26; l5:26;
l6:7-ll.l3-l5), reflect this experience. The Book of Acts reports its
coming in the community of Jesus' followers in Jerusalem (2:l-4) and its
reception when people accept the gospel (8:l5; l0:44; l9:6, . also refrred
to in the phrase lambanein to pneuma Gal 3:3; Rom 8:l5-l6; 2 Cor ll:4),
Hence the spirit was believed to lie permanently present in the communities
and to influence the conduct of the bellievers towards one another (Gal
5:22; Rom l4:l7) and to inspIre them to lead a llife kata pneuma,
follllowiIIg the guidance of the spirit:, Those who fail to meet this
standard are not entitled to he calllled pneumatikos(ll Cor3:l-4),
The spirit: was experienced in more direct manifestations, either as a
rekindling of a present gift or as a sudden outpouring,
These manifestations relate t:o (l) revelatIon, (2) power, and (3)
worship,
(l) Paul ranks apost:les, prophe:s and teachers (in this order) at the top
of an enumeIation of girts of the spirit (l Cor l2:28) and claims that the
wisdom which he preaches as an apostle, his gospel, was revealed to him by
the spirit (l Cor 2,l0) and this may also apply to prophecy and teaching Of
these two prophecy is the most prominent revelatory manifestation of the
spirit. It is attested in three Pauiine letters (lThess,l Cor, Rom), in
Rev,l John, Did,ll and Hermas Man. ll,
The Siz im Leben of primitive Christian prophecy is the gathered community
the 'gatheriIIg of righteous men who have faith in the divine spirit'
(Hermas, man. ll,9), where the spirit is present and can become active
when invoked. The presence of the spirit in the gathered comununity is a
presupposition for prophecy to function, When prophets speak their messages
the congre gation has to jmige whethar or not they are insplied by the
spirit of God Discerning the spirits (diakrisis pneumat"n) is itself a gift
(l Cor l2:l0; l4:29) and a case of the principle similia similibus
cognoscuntur, Yet sometimes external criteria are mentioned, pertaining
either to the rnoral (Matt 7:l5-20; Did. ll,8-l2) or the doctrinal (l Cor
l2:3; l John 4:l-6) side of the phenomenon,
Prophecy is instant speech inspired by the spirit and spoken hic et nunc
III the congre gation, More than one prophet may speak but a certain order
must be kept (l Cor l4:29-33), Direct insphation by the spirit does not
causc a loss of consciousness as with the Montanist prophetesses (Eusebius,
Eccl. .Uist. V l7); the prophet is supposed to have controi over his
prophetic inspirarion (l Cor l4:32),
The content of prophetic speech is not clearly stated, The Book of Acts
mentions prophetic predictions of events to come (ll:28; 2l:4) and Paul
states that prophecy serves ''for upbuilding, encouragement and
consolation'` (l Cor l4:3), Presumabily prophecy, preaching and teaching
overlap in the life of the community The 'word of wisdom` and the `word of
knowledge` which Paul mentions in lCor l2:8 are probably favourite terms in
the church of the Corinthians since they are not mentioned elsewhere,
(2) The standard phrase to describe acts of power effected or inspired by
the spirit is `miracles and signs` (terata ka/ sēmeia) probably to be
understood as a hendiadys: miraculous acts which signal the power of the
spIrit,, usuailly in support of the preaching of the gospel (Acts 2:43;
5:l2; l4:3; l5:l2; 2 Cor l2:l2; Rom l5:l9; Heb , 2:3
The Greek expressIon reflects the Hebrew idiom ʾōtôt ûmôĕtîm, `signs and
wonders `(see, e, g, Deut 4:34), The nature of the miracles is never
specified, Sometimes the word `power` (dypamis) is added as a quaiification
of the miracle (Acts 8:l3; Rom l5:l 2Cor l2:l2 sometimes `acts of power`
(dynameis) are mentioned as an equivalent (Acts l9:ll; l Cor 2:4; l2:l0,
28; l Thess l:5), According to l Cor l2:9-l0 they are to be distinguished
from 'acts of healing` (charismata iamatôn). Such acts are reported in
Acts, sometimes as a collective event (5:ll6; 8:7; 28:9), sometimes as an
individual healing (3:6-8; 9:l8; l6:l8; 20: l0. Acts l9:l2 shows that in
Luke`s understanding there Is no clear distinction beIween acts of power
and acts of healing.
(3) Prayer, too, is experienced as an act of thc spirit Thc Abba-invocatiol
is describcd both as spoken by the believers under the inspiration of the
spirit (Rom 8:l5) and as an utterance of the spirit itself in the hearts of
the believers (Gal 4:6). The same conecpt of the spirit-inspired prayer
(oratio infusa, see Heiler l920:224-227) underlies Rom 8:26. Whether the
`groans that cannot be spoken` (stenagmoi alalētoi) refer to glossolalia is
not certain. Speairing in tongues, or languages, is mentioned in Mark
l6:l5, in Acts ami in l Cor l2 ami l4,
In Mark l6:l5 speaking in new tongues Is one of the signs that wIlll
accompany the believers, In Acts 2:l-l2 " speaking in other t:ongues''
(laleln heterais glōssais) is speak ing in foreign languages understood by
the inhabitants of the countries where the languages are spoken; in l0:46
it is mentioned together with praising God and in l9:6 together with
prophecy, Apparently the author of Acts does not know glossolaiia from
personal experience, In l Cor l2 and l4 Paul attempts to tone down an
overestimation of the phenomenon by comparing it to prophecy: speaking in
tongnes is an individual experience of prayer in incomprehensible words.,
The words mnst be translated in order to be understood by the congrgation.
Whether or not such translations occurred is not indicated, lCor l4:l3-l9
shows that speaking in tongues comes close to praying and singing.
(c) Notwithstanding the frequent occurence of pneuma or pneuma hagion as an
Independent notion, In the NT the spirit Is not envisaged as a divine being
hypostasis), but as an instrnment of divine actIon or reveiatIon,
The relatIonship between the spIrit and the exalted Christ is described in
varIous ways, Acts 2:33 sees the spirit as poured out by Christ and l6:7
refers to the spirit as pneuma , Iēsou (cf, also Phil l:l9; l Pet , 2:ll.
Rom 8:9-ll shows how easily the phrases pneuma theou, pneuma Christou and
Christos can be used interchangeably,
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