A Lesson in "Original Intent" by me (grin)
This is a brand new Article for the
The Constitutional Principle: Separation of Church and State
http://members.tripod.com/~candst/index.html website.
It will also be post on
HRSepCnS · Hampton Roads [Virginia] SepChurch&State
http://groups.yahoo.com/group/HRSepCnS/
[Its not just Hampton Roads folks who are members, there are members from
all over the US and a couple from overseas as well]
as well as Church State Separation Forum of Secular Web, various Usenet
Newgroups, sent as a file to Mike Newdow and Rob boston at AU, as well as
several other people,
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I wish to thank Michael Newdow for bringing this to my attention in a
phone call in late December 2003. He pointed me in this direction when
he called and said "They took God out."
OATHS
PART 1
WHAT DID THE FOUNDERS WANT OR ESTABLISH?
A LESSON IN "ORIGINAL INTENT."
CONSTITUTION
1787
Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the
following Oath or Affirmation:--
"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully
execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the
best of my Ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of
the United States."
The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the Members of
the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial
Officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall
be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no
religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office
or public Trust under the United States.
1789
CONGRESS REMOVED GOD
Some people proclaim that the founders would have approved of "under
God" and "in God we trust," the posting of "Ten Commandments," etc
but I say. NOT SO FAST
Consider some historical evidence. The Annals of Congress reported
the first law enacted in the nation was initially proposed to read:
MONDAY, APRIL 6, 1789
Ordered, That leave be given to bring in a hill to regulate the taking
the oath or affirmation prescribed by the sixth article of the
Constitution and that Messrs. White, Madison, Trumbull, Gilman, and
Cadwalader, do prepare and bring in the same.
On motion, General Government of the United States;
Resolved, That the form of the oath to he taken by the members of this
house, as required by the third clause of the sixth article of the
government of the United States be as followeth, to wit.
"I, A B, a Representative of the United States in the Congress
thereof, do solemnly swear (or affirm, as the case may be) in the
presence of Almighty GOD, that I will support the Constitution of the
United States. So help me God,"
SOURCE: Gales & Seaton's Annals of Congress, First Federal Congress,
First Sesson, House of Representatives, April 6, 1789, p. 101
But those lawmakers had to conform to the Constitution of the United
States which emphatically stated:
ARTICLE VI - CLAUSE III
The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the Members of
the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial
Officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall
be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no
religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office
or public Trust under the United States.
http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage
When the debate was finished, the first statute passed by the United
States Congress in June 1, 1789 looked rather different having lost
any reference to God.
STATUTE 1
CHAPTER I.
An Act to regulate the Time and Manner of administering
certain Oaths.
SEC. l . Be it enacted by the Senate and [House of] Representatives
of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the oath
or affirmation required by the sixth article of the Constitution of
the United States, shall be administered in the form following, to wit:
" I, A. B. do solemnly swear or affirm (as the case may be) that I
will support the Constitution of the United States." The said oath or
affirmation shall be administered within three days after the passing
of this act, by any one member of the Senate, to the President of the
Senate, and by him to all the members and to the secretary; and by the
Speaker of the House of Representatives, to all the members who have
not taken a similar oath, by virtue of a particular resolution of the
said House, and to the clerk: and in case of the absence of any member
from the service of either House, at the time prescribed for taking
the said oath or affirmations, the same shall be administered to such
member, when he shall appear to take his seat.
SEC. 2. And be it further enacted, That at the first session of
Congress after every general election of Representatives, the oath or
affirmation aforesaid, shall be administered by any one member of the
House of Representatives to the Speaker; and by him to all the members
present, and to the clerk, previous to entering on any other business;
and to the members who shall afterwards appear, previous to taking
their seats. The President of the Senate for the time being, shall
also administer the said oath or affirmation to each Senator who shall
hereafter be elected, previous to his taking his seat: and in any
future case of a President of the Senate, who shall not have taken the
said oath or affirmation, the same shall be administered to him by any
one of the members of the Senate.
SEC. 3. And be it further enacted, That the members of the several
State legislatures, at the next sessions of the said legislatures;
respectively, and all executive and judicial officers of the several
States, who have been heretofore chosen or appointed, or who shall be
chosen or appointed before the first day of August next, and who shall
then be in. office, shall, within one month thereafter, take the same
oath or affirmation, except where they shall have taken it before;
which may be administered by any person authorized by the law of the
State, in which such office shall be holden, to administer oaths. And
the members of the several State legislatures, and all executive and
judicial officers of the several States, who. shall be chosen or
appointed after the said first day of August, shall; before they
proceed to execute the duties of their respective offices, take the
foregoing oath or affirmation, which shall be administered by the
person or persons, who by the law of the State shall be authorized to
administer the oath of office; and the person or persons so
administering the oath hereby required to be taken, shall cause a
record or certificate thereof to be made, in the same manner, as, by
the law of the State, he or they shall be directed to record or
certify the oath of
office.
SEC. 4. And be it further enacted, That all officers appointed, or
hereafter to be appointed under the authority of the United States,
shall, before they act in their respective offices; take the same oath
or affirmation, which shall be administered by the person or persons
who shall be authorized by law to administer to such officers their
respective. oaths of office; and such officers shall incur the same
penalties in case of failure, as shall be imposed by law in case of
failure in taking their respective oaths of office.
SEC. 5. And be it further enacted, That the secretary of the Senate,
and the clerk of the House of Representatives for the time being,
shall, at the time of taking the oath or affirmation aforesaid, each
take an oath or affirmation in the words following, to wit:
" I, A. B. secretary of the Senate, or clerk of the House of
Representatives (as the case may be) of the United States of America,
do solemnly swear or affirm, that I will truly and faithfully
discharge the duties of my said office, to the best of my knowledge
and abilities."
APPROVED, JUNE 1, 1789.
SOURCE: The Laws of the United States, Acts of the First Congress of
the United States, The Public Statutes at Large, Vol I., Little and
Brown (1845) pp, 23-24.
Thus Congress effectively removed God from the original proposal as
per the ban on religious tests, that separation clause/phrase of the
unamended constitution.
OATHS FOR OTHER OFFICER HOLDERS, ETC
Vice President
Would originally have been the same as the President
Members of Congress (Legislative Branch)
The original oath was as follows: "I do solemnly swear (or affirm)
that I will support the Constitution of the United States."
MILITARY
Oaths of Enlistment and Oaths of Office
http://www.army.mil/CMH/faq/oaths.htm
During the Revolutionary War, the Continental Congress established
different oaths for the enlisted men and officers of the Continental Army:
ENLISTED
The first oath, voted on 14 June 1775 as part of the act creating the
Continental Army, read:
1775
"I have, this day, voluntarily enlisted myself, as a soldier, in the
American continental army, for one year, unless sooner discharged: And
I do bind myself to conform, in all instances, to such rules and
regulations, as are, or shall be, established for the government of
the said Army."
1776
The original wording was effectively replaced by Section 3, Article
1, of the Articles of War approved by Congress on 20 September 1776,
which specified that the oath of enlistment
read:
"I swear (or affirm as the case may be) to be trued to the United
States of America, and to serve them honestly and faithfully against
all their enemies opposers whatsoever; and to observe and obey the
orders of the Continental Congress, and the orders of the Generals and
officers set over me by them."
OFFICERS
1776
Continental Congress passed two versions of this oath of office,
applied to military and civilian national officers. The first, on 21
October 1776, read:
"I , do acknowledge the Thirteen United States of America, namely,
New Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York,
New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North
Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, to be free, independent, and
sovereign states, and declare, that the people thereof owe no
allegiance or obedience to George the third, king of Great Britain;
and I renounce, refuse and abjure any allegiance or obedience to him;
and I do swear that I will, to the utmost of my power, support,
maintain, and defend the said United States against the said king,
George the third, and his heirs and successors, and his and their
abettors, assistants and adherents; and will serve the said United
States in the office of , which I now hold, and in any other office
which I may hereafter hold by their appointment, or under their
authority, with fidelity and honour, and according to the best of my
skill and understanding. So help me God."
1778
The revised version, voted 3 February 1778, read
"I, do acknowledge the United States of America to be free,
independent and sovereign states, and declare that the people thereof
owe no allegiance or obedience, to George the third, king of Great
Britain; and I renounce, refuse and abjure any allegiance or obedience
to him: and I do swear (or affirm) that I will, to the utmost of my
power, support, maintain and defend the said United States, against
the said king George the third and his heirs and successors, and his
and their abettors, assistants and adherents, and will serve the said
United States in the office of which I now hold, with fidelity,
according to the best of my skill and understanding. So help me God."
1789
The first oath under the Constitution was approved by Act of Congress
29 September 1789 (Sec. 3, Ch. 25, 1st Congress). It applied to all
commissioned officers, noncommissioned officers and privates in the
service of the United States. It came in two parts, the first of which
read:
"I, A.B., do solemnly swear or affirm (as the case may be) that I
will support the constitution of the United States."
The second part read:
"I, A.B., do solemnly swear or affirm (as the case may be) to bear
true allegiance to the United States of America, and to serve them
honestly and faithfully, against all their enemies or opposers
whatsoever, and to observe and obey the orders of the President of the
United States of America, and the orders of the officers appointed
over me."
The next section of that chapter specified that "the said troops
shall be governed by the rules and articles of war, which have been
established by the United States in Congress assembled, or by such
rules and articles of war as may hereafter by law be established."
FEDERAL JUDICIARY ACT (1789)
The complete text of the Judiciary Act which was enacted on September
24, 1789, can be found at
http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?...age=transcript
CHAP. XX.
An Act to establish the Judicial Courts of the United States.
SEC. 7. And be it [further] enacted, That the Supreme Court, and the
district courts shall have power to appoint clerks for their
respective courts, and that the clerk for each district court shall be
clerk also of the circuit court in such district, and each of the said
clerks shall, before he enters upon the execution of his office, take
the following oath or affirmation, to wit:
"I, A. B., being appointed clerk of , do solemnly swear, or
affirm, that I will truly and faithfully enter and record all the
orders, decrees, judgments and proceedings of the said court, and that
I will faithfully and impartially discharge and perform all the duties
of my said office, according to the best of my abilities and
understanding. So help me God." WHICH WORDS SO HELP ME GOD, SHALL BE
OMITTED IN ALL CASES WHERE AN AFFIRMATION IS ADMITTED INSTEAD OF AN
OATH. And the said clerks shall also severally give bond, with
sufficient sureties, (to be approved of by the Supreme and district
courts respectively) to the United States, in the sum of two thousand
dollars, faithfully to discharge the duties of his office, and
seasonably to record the decrees, judgments and determinations of the
court of which he is clerk. [CAP/BOLD EMPHASIS ADDED BY ME]
SEC. 8. And be it further enacted, That the justices of the Supreme
Court, and the district judges, before they proceed to execute the
duties of their respective offices, shall take the following oath or
affirmation, to wit:
"I, A. B., do solemnly swear or affirm, that I will administer
justice without respect to persons, and do equal right to the poor and
to the rich, and that I will faithfully and impartially discharge and
perform all the duties incumbent on me as , according to the best of
my abilities and understanding, agreeably to the constitution, and
laws of the United States. So help me God."
SEC. 27. And be it further enacted, That a marshal shall be appointed
in and for each district for the term of four years, but shall be
removable from office at pleasure, whose duty it shall be to attend
the district and circuit courts when sitting therein, and also the
Supreme Court in the District in which that court shall sit. And to
execute throughout the district, all lawful precepts directed to him,
and issued under the authority of the United States, and he shall have
power to command all necessary assistance in the execution of his
duty, and to appoint as there shall be occasion, one or more deputies,
who shall be removable from office by the judge of the district court,
or the circuit court sitting within the district, at the pleasure of
either; and before he enters on the duties of his office, he shall
become bound for the faithful performance of the same, by himself and
by his deputies before the judge of the district court to the United
States, jointly and severally, with two good and sufficient sureties,
inhabitants and freeholders of such district, to be approved by the
district judge, in the sum of twenty thousand dollars, and shall take
before said judge, as shall also his deputies, before they enter on
the duties of their appointment, the following oath of office:
"I, A. B., do solemnly swear or affirm, that I will faithfully
execute all lawful precepts directed to the marshal of the district of
under the authority of the United States, and true returns make, and
in all things well and truly, and without malice or partiality,
perform the duties of the office of marshal (or marshal's deputy, as
the case may be) of the district of , during my continuance in said
office, and take only my lawful fees. So help me God."
FURTHER RESEARCH WILL HAVE TO BE DONE
Further research will have to be done of the historical documents to
try and determine if possible why there was originally a difference
between the office holders oath/affirmation and that of the Judiciary
branch. Also when the original office holders oath was revised by
johnny come lately politician/lawmakers and why. What was behind
it, etc.
PART 2
WHAT HAVE CREATIVE POLITICIANS DONE SINCE THEN?
Vice President of the United States (Executive Branch)
The Vice President also takes an oath of office. Until 1933, the Vice
President took the oath of office in the Senate. Today, both the
President and Vice President are inaugurated in the same ceremony. The
Vice President's oath is administered immediately before the
President's. The Vice President's oath may be administered by the
retiring vice president, by a member of Congress, or by some other
government official, such as a justice of the Supreme Court. The Vice
President's oath is as follows:
"I do solemnly swear that I will support and defend the Constitution
of the United States against all enemies, foreign and domestic, that I
will bear true faith and allegiance to the same: that I take this
obligation freely, without any mental reservation or purpose of
evasion, and I will well and faithfully discharge the duties of the
office on which I am about to enter. So help me God."
Members of Congress (Legislative Branch)
The Constitution requires that Senators and Representatives take an
oath of office to support the Constitution (Article VI, clause 3). The
specific language of the oath is set by statute enacted by Congress (5
U.S.C. 3331), and has changed several times since 1789.
At the start of each new Congress, in January of every odd-numbered
year, the entire House of Representatives and one-third of the Senate
takes an oath of office. The Speaker of the House will direct the
Members to rise and the oath is administered. The original oath was as
follows: "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will support the
Constitution of the United States."
The oath was revised during the Civil War, when members of Congress
were concerned about traitors. The current oath is as follows:
"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will support and defend
the Constitution of the United States against all enemies, foreign and
domestic; that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the same; that
I take this obligation freely, without any mental reservation or
purpose of evasion; and that I will well and faithfully discharge the
duties of the office on which I am about to enter: So help me God."
[see http://www.c-span.org/questions/weekly48.asp for additional info ]
MILITARY
Oaths of Enlistment and Oaths of Office
Although the enlisted oath remained unchanged until 1950, the officer
oath has undergone substantial minor modification since 1789.
ENLISTED
1960
"I, _____, do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will support and
defend the Constitution of the United States against all enemies,
foreign and domestic; that I will bear true faith and allegiance to
the same; and that I will obey the orders of the President of the
United States and the orders of the officers appointed over me,
according to regulations and the Uniform Code of Military Justice. So
help me God." (Title 10, US Code; Act of 5 May 1960 replacing the
wording first adopted in 1789, with amendment effective 5 October 1962).
OFFICERS
1830
A change in about 1830 read:
"I, , appointed a in the Army of the United States, do solemnly
swear, or affirm, that I will bear true allegiance to the United
States of America, and that I will serve them honestly and faithfully
against all their enemies or opposers whatsoever, and observe and obey
the orders of the President of the United States, and the orders of
the officers appointed over me, according to the rules and articles
for the government of the Armies of the United States."
1862
Under an act of 2 July 1862 the oath became:
"I, A.B., do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I have never borne arms
against the United States since I have been a citizen thereof; that I
have voluntarily given no aid, countenance, counsel, or encouragement
to persons engaged in armed hostility thereto; that I have neither
sought nor accepted nor attempted to exercise the functions of any
office whatsoever under any authority or pretended authority in
hostility to the United States; that I have not yielded voluntary
support to any pretended government, authority, power, or constitution
within the United States, hostile or inimical thereto. And I do
further swear (or affirm) that, to the best of my knowledge and
ability, I will support and defend the Constitution of the United
States against all enemies, foreign and domestic; that I will bear
true faith and allegiance to the same; that I take this obligation
freely, without any mental reservation or purpose of evasion; and that
I will well and faithfully discharge the duties of the office on which
I am about to enter, so help me God."
1884
An act of 13 May 1884 reverted to a simpler formulation:
"I, A.B., do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will support and
defend the Constitution of the United States against all enemies,
foreign or domestic; that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the
same; that I take this obligation freely, without any mental
reservation or purpose of evasion; and that I will well and faithfully
discharge the duties of the office on which I am about to enter. So
help me God." This version remained in effect until the 1959 adoption
of the present wording.
1959
"I, _____ (SSAN), having been appointed an officer in the Army of the
United States, as indicated above in the grade of _____ do solemnly
swear (or affirm) that I will support and defend the Constitution of
the United States against all enemies, foreign or domestic, that I
will bear true faith and allegiance to the same; that I take this
obligation freely, without any mental reservations or purpose of
evasion; and that I will well and faithfully discharge the duties of
the office upon which I am about to enter; So help me God." (DA Form
71, 1 August 1959, for officers.)
CONCLUSIONS
The U S Constitution was framed with a ban on religious tests, and
with the language given for one oath of office (the President)
encased in quotation marks, the only quotation marks in the entire
document. That oath offered the choice of swearing or affirming and
contained no reference to God.
Some members of the First Session of the First Federal Congress
wanted the oath for office for the President to be as follows:
"I, A B, a Representative of the United States in the Congress
thereof, do solemnly swear (or affirm, as the case may be) in the
presence of Almighty GOD, that I will support the Constitution of the
United States. So help me God,"
However, the oath for office that was actually passed by those men of
that First Session of the First Federal Congress was as follows:
" I, A. B. do solemnly swear or affirm (as the case may be)
that I will support the Constitution of the United States."
and
SEC. 5. And be it further enacted, That the secretary of the
Senate, and the clerk of the House of Representatives for the time
being, shall, at the time of taking the oath or affirmation aforesaid,
each take an oath or affirmation in the words following, to wit: °'
I, A. B. secretary of the Senate, or clerk of the House of
Representatives (as the case may be) of the United States of America,
do solemnly swear or affirm, that I will truly and faithfully
discharge the duties of my said office, to the best of my knowledge
and abilities."
and the oath for the Members of Congress and Vice President was
"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will support the Constitution
of the United States."
However, for the Supreme Court, and the district court clerks take
the following oath or affirmation, to wit:
"I, A. B., being appointed clerk of , do solemnly swear, or
affirm, that I will truly and faithfully enter and record all the
orders, decrees, judgments and proceedings of the said court, and that
I will faithfully and impartially discharge and perform all the duties
of my said office, according to the best of my abilities and
understanding. So help me God."
The justices of the Supreme Court, and the district judges, shall
take the following oath or affirmation, to wit:
"I, A. B., do solemnly swear or affirm, that I will administer
justice without respect to persons, and do equal right to the poor and
to the rich, and that I will faithfully and impartially discharge and
perform all the duties incumbent on me as , according to the best of
my abilities and understanding, agreeably to the constitution, and
laws of the United States. So help me God."
That a marshal also his deputies, the following oath of office:
"I, A. B., do solemnly swear or affirm, that I will faithfully
execute all lawful precepts directed to the marshal of the district of
under the authority of the United States, and true returns make, and
in all things well and truly, and without malice or partiality,
perform the duties of the office of marshal (or marshal's deputy, as
the case may be) of the district of , during my continuance in said
office, and take only my lawful fees. So help me God."
The following would have to apply in each of the above cases and I am
willing to bet still applies to this very day otherwise there is a
very clear violation of the Constitution.
". . . which words so help me go shall be omitted in all cases where
an affirmation is admitted instead of an oath.
(SOURCE: CHAP. XX. An Act to establish the Judicial Courts of the
United States. SEC. 7. )
The language for the Oath of office for the President was given in
the Constitution. While the requirement for oaths of office for others
were required by that document, the language for those oaths was not
given in that document. However, one can assume that the oath for
president would be the model for the others as well and that was
exactly what the members of the First Session of the First Federal
Congress did (after some did try to get God into that one oath)
Thus, they ultimately followed the ban on religious tests duplicated
the language given for the Oath of Office for President in writing
oaths for other officer holders
There was a deviation when it came to the judicial branch of
government and further research will be needed there to see if why can
be determined.
Even in the case of the military Godless oaths were written. What is
remarkable about this is for officers from 1776 to 1789 "So help me
God" was part of their oath, but under the Constitution that was no
longer the case and it remained no longer the case until 1862.
SOME ADDITIONAL POINTS
The founders created a secular government by framing a secular
Constitution which was "godless" and/or "left God out" in the words
of traditionalists of the day. A secular constitution that separated
church and state.
The Founders approved a secular national motto
The Founders never put "in God we trust" on anything
The Founders never wrote or added "under God" to any documents.
The Founders never approved a Pledge but that is another story for
another day.
The Founders never posted the Ten Commandments, Jefferson and Adams even
questioned where they even came from. The Rev. John Leland stated they
applied only to ancient Israel. Thomas Paine was unimpressed by them
The Founders framed a secular Constitution for a secular nation
The Founders separate religion and government in that document
The Founders rejected a oath of office that contained the word God for
all except members of the judiciary
All of the above additions that exist now was done by politicians for
political reasons long after the last of the founders had died.
In a letter to the New York Times (letter: Jan. 20, 1989; published:
Feb. 5, 1989), Burton Caine, a Professor of Law at Temple University,
sharply criticized George Bush's taking of the presidential oath:
"Although President Bush swore to preserve the Constitution, he did
not obey its precise command in taking the oath of office." Caine then
quotes the oath and observes, quite correctly, that this "is the only
place' in the Constitution where quotation marks are used." The
framers obviously intended, Caine goes on, that the President should
"use the exact words, no more, no less." But George Bush added "So
help me God," and Caine asserts that this is "unconstitutional. " "The
authors of Article II understood that an oath traditionally could
refer to a deity and, by providing the precise language and omitting
such reference, clearly intended such words should not be said. I
would implore our President not to take liberties with the
Constitution, especially in the sensitive area of the separation of
church and state. In a country with a population as diverse as ours, a
President who wants to represent all the people must include deists
and nondeists. The neutrality course prescribed by the Constitution is
not only the law, but it is also the best policy." Perhaps Professor
Caine is unaware of the fact that George Washington, the Father of our
Country, added the words "So help me God," when he first took the oath.
[There is no valid historical documentation showing that Washington
or any other President ever said "so help me God" when being sworn in,
at least not prior to the 1880s ]
SOURCE: I Do Solemnly Swear: The President's Constitutional Oath Its
Meaning and Importance in the History of Oaths, Matthew A. Pauley,
University Press of America, Lanham, NY, Oxford, (1999) pp. 110-112;
222-23
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You are invited to check out the following:
The Rise of the Theocratic States of America
http://members.tripod.com/~candst/theocracy.htm
American Theocrats - Past and Present
http://members.tripod.com/~candst/theocrats.htm
The Constitutional Principle: Separation of Church and State
http://members.tripod.com/~candst/index.html
[and to join the discussion group for the above site and/or Separation of
Church and State in general, listed below]
HRSepCnS · Hampton Roads [Virginia] SepChurch&State
http://groups.yahoo.com/group/HRSepCnS/
[Its not just Hampton Roads folks who are members, there are members from
all over the US and a couple from overseas as well]
***************************************************************
.. . . You can't understand a phrase such as "Congress shall make no law
respecting an establishment of religion" by syllogistic reasoning. Words
take their meaning from social as well as textual contexts, which is why "a
page of history is worth a volume of logic." New York Trust Co. v. Eisner,
256 U.S. 345, 349, 41 S.Ct. 506, 507, 65 L.Ed. 963 (1921) (Holmes, J.).
Sherman v. Community Consol. Dist. 21, 980 F.2d 437, 445 (7th Cir. 1992)
.. . .
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USAF LT. COL (Ret) Buffman (Glen P. Goffin) wrote
"You pilot always into an unknown future;
facts are your only clue. Get the facts!"
That philosophy 'snipit' helped to get me, and my crew, through a good
many combat missions and far too many scary, inflight, emergencies.
It has also played a significant role in helping me to expose the
plethora of radical Christian propaganda and lies that we find at
almost every media turn.
*****************************************************************
THE CONSTITUTIONAL PRINCIPLE:
SEPARATION OF CHURCH AND STATE
http://members.tripod.com/~candst/index.html
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