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The Battle of Khaybar was fought in the year 629 between Muhammad and =
his followers against the Jews living in Khaybar, an oasis located 150 =
kilometers (95 miles) from Medina in the area of Hejaz of the western =
part of the Arabian peninsula in what is nowadays Saudi Arabia. =
Contemporary scholars believe that Muhammad moved to attack Khaybar in =
order to raise his prestige among his followers, as well as to capture =
booty to sustain subsequent conquests. The battle ended with Muhammad's =
victory, which allowed him to gain sufficient money, weapons, and =
support from local tribes to capture Mecca just 18 months after Khaybar.
The defeated Jews were killed, enslaved, or reduced to serfdom. =
Muhammad's followers killed all the men and divided among themselves the =
women of Banu Nadir Jewish tribe, which Muhammad had expelled from =
Medina three years before the capture of Khaybar. Other Jews living in =
Khaybar surrendered on condition of paying tribute to Muhammad and =
giving up all their land to Muslims. Jews continued to live in the oasis =
for several more years until they were finally expelled by caliph Umar. =
The imposition of tribute upon the conquered Jews served as a precedent =
for provisions in the Islamic law requiring the exaction of tribute =
known as jizya from dhimmis, i.e. non-Muslims under Muslim rule, and =
confiscation of land belonging to non-Muslims into the collective =
property of the Muslim community.=20
Background
Khaybar in the 7th century
In the 7th century, Khaybar was inhabited by the Jews, who pioneered the =
cultivation of the oasis and made their living growing date palm trees, =
as well as through commerce and craftsmanship, accumulating considerable =
wealth. Some objects found by the Muslims in a redoubt at Khaybar - a =
siege-engine, 20 bales of Yemenite cloth, and 500 cloaks - point out to =
an intense trade carried out by the Jews. While in the past some =
scholars attempted to explain the presence of a siege-engine, suggesting =
that it was used for settling quarrels among the families of the =
community, nowadays the common opinion among academics is that it was =
stored in a dep=F4t for future sale, in the same way that swords, =
lances, shields, and other weaponry had been sold by the Jews to Arabs. =
Equally, the cloth and the cloaks must have been intended for sale, as =
it is not conceivable that such a quantity of luxury goods was kept for =
the exclusive use of the Jews. Seen in this light, Muhammad's attacks =
against the Jews, first in Medina and then in Khaybar, has at least some =
economic motivation, as is often the case of conflicts which are =
superficially based on other (frequently cultural or religious) factors. =
The oasis was divided into three regions: al-Natat, al-Shikk, and =
al-Katiba, probably separated by natural diversions, such as the desert, =
lava drifts, and swamps. Each of these regions contained several =
fortresses or redoubts containing homes, storehouses and stables. Each =
fortress was occupied by a separate family and surrounded by cultivated =
fields and palm-groves. In order to improve their defensive =
capabilities, the fortresses were raised up on hills or basalt rocks.
Muhammad and the Jews of Medina
Over several years after his arrival in Medina, Muhammad killed or =
expelled all Jews from Medina. In 625, after the defeat in the Battle of =
Uhud at the hands of the Meccan army, Muhammad expelled from Medina the =
Jewish tribe of Banu Nadir, who found refuge in Khaybar. In 627, after =
the Battle of the Trench, Muhammad and his followers killed all the men =
of Banu Qurayza, the only Jewish tribe remaining in Medina at that time, =
and enslaved their women and children.=20
Muhammad's plans for attack
Muhammad's reasoning behind his decision to attack Khaybar was the =
necessity to raise his authority among his followers, which had been =
under threat since the Treaty of Hudaybiyya. The conquest of Khaybar =
would enable him to satisfy with ample booty his companions who, having =
hoped to capture Mecca, were disappointed and discontented at the treaty =
with the Meccans. In addition, the Hudaybiyya agreement gave him the =
assurance of not being attacked by the Meccans during the expedition.
In his preparations for the attack, Muhammad took steps to eliminate =
some of the leaders of the Jews of Khaybar. His henchmen stole into =
Khaybar at night and assassinated Abu al-Rafi ibn Abi al-Huqayq, one of =
the Khaybar chieftains. Seeing the willingness of the Jews to negotiate =
with him, Muhammad sent envoys to Khaybar inviting Usayr ibn Zarim, the =
war chief of Banu Nadir, to come to Medina for talks. Unarmed, Umayr and =
thirty his companions set off to Medina with Muhammad's emissaries. On =
the way, the Muslims attacked the defenseless Jewish delegation, killing =
all but one of them, who managed to escape.
Jewish defensive preparations
The expulsion of Banu Nadir from Median led the Jews of Khaybar to =
realize the danger they were in. Huyayy ibn Akhtab, the chief of Banu =
Nadir, went with his son to join Meccans and Bedouins besieging Medina =
during the Battle of the Trench. After the siege of Medina proved =
unsuccessful, both Huyayy ibn Akhtab and his son defended Banu Qurayza, =
who were besieged by Muhammad and his followers, and shared the fate of =
the men of Banu Qurayza who were killed by the Muslims after the =
surrender.
The war with Muhammad seemed imminent after the Muslims massacred the =
Jewish delegation sent to negotiate with Muhammad. The Jews of Khaybar =
entered into an alliance with the Jews of Fadak oasis, as well as with =
Bedouins of Ghatafan tribe. However, the lack of central authority at =
Khaybar prevented any further defensive preparations, and quarrels =
between different families left the Jews disorganized.=20
Course of the battle
Muhammad and his followers marched on Khaybar in May 629. According to =
different sources, the strength of his army varies from 1,400 to 1,800 =
men and between 100 and 200 horses. Thanks to the speed and secrecy of =
the march, the Muslims caught the Jews by surprise; the Jews realized =
they were under attack only when they went out to work in the fields. As =
a result, the Jews failed to mount centrally organized defense, and each =
family was left to defend its own fortified redoubt. In addition, =
Muhammad bribed the Bedouin allies of the Jews and prevented any further =
assistance from coming to Khaybar.
Knowing the fate of Banu Qurayza, the Jews of Khaybar put up fierce =
resistance, and Muslims were forced to take fortresses one by one. The =
Jews, after a rather bloody skirmish in front of one of the fortresses, =
avoided combat in the open country, and Muhammad had to resort to =
besieging and storming the fortresses, hoping that the capitulation of =
the defenders should become inevitable through lack of water and food. =
However, the besieged Jews managed to organize, under the cover of =
darkness, a transfer of people and treasures from one fortress to =
another depending on the situation to make their resistance more =
effective.
The traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad report that in one of the =
fortresses, first Abu Bakr, then Umar, took up the standard in the hope =
of breaking down their resistance, by putting themselves at the head of =
the attacks, but both failed. Muhammad then called to Ali, who killed a =
Jewish chieftain with a sword-stroke, which split in two the helmet, the =
head and the body of the victim. Having lost his shield, Ali lifted one =
of the doors of the fortress from its hinges and defended himself with =
it, then used it to make a bridge whereby the attackers gained access to =
the redoubt. The door was so heavy that later eight men had to put it =
back in place. This incident (greatly exaggerated in the opinion of =
academic historians) became one of the reasons why Muslims, especially =
Shi'ites, view Ali as the prototype of heroes.
Although the Jews were unprepared for an extended siege, neither were =
the Muslims, who also suffered from a lack of provisions. On one =
occasion, Muslim warriors killed and cooked a score of donkeys, which =
escaped from a farm. The incident led Muhammad to forbid to Muslims the =
meat of horses, mules, and donkeys, unless consumption was forced by =
necessity. Muhammad ordered the felling of 400 palms around one fortress =
to force its defenders to capitulate. Finally, the Jews surrendered when =
after a month and a half of the siege, all but two fortresses were =
captured by the Muslims.
After the battle
Terms of surrenderThe Jews were able to negotiate an agreement under =
which they were to remain in the oasis, cultivating their land. However, =
from now on they were required to hand over one-half of the produce to =
the Muslims. The land itself became the collective property of Muslims, =
which effectively reduced the Jews of Khaybar to the status of serfs. In =
addition, Muslims had the right to evict the Jews at any time, although =
modern historians believe that the latter clause was an ex-post =
justification for the subsequent expulsion of Jews from Khaybar. The =
agreement with the Jews of Khaybar served as an important precedent for =
Islamic Law in determining the status of dhimmis, i.e. non-Muslims who =
fell under Muslim rule.
Massacre of Banu Nadir
The agreement, however, did not cover the Banu Nadir tribe. Muslims =
killed all the men of Banu Nadir and divided the women among themselves. =
Muhammad chose for himself Safiyya bint Huyayy, daughter of the killed =
Banu Nadir chief Huyayy ibn Akhtab and widow of the treasurer of Banu =
Nadir whom Muhammad's followers first tortured, demanding to reveal the =
location of the hidden treasures of Banu Nadir, and then killed.
Poisoning of Muhammad
Muslim biographers of Muhammad tell a story that a Jewess of Banu Nadir =
tribe attempted to poison Muhammad to avenge her slain relatives. She =
poisoned a piece of lamb that she cooked for Muhammad and his companion, =
putting especially much poison into the shoulder - Muhammad's favorite =
part of lamb. The attempt on Muhammad's life failed because he =
reportedly spit out the meat, feeling that it was poisoned, while his =
companion ate the meat and died. Muhammad's companions then reported =
that on his deathbed Muhammad said that his illness was the result of =
that poison.
Strengthening of Muhammad
The victory in Khaybar greatly raised the status of Muhammad among his =
followers and, local Bedouin tribes, who, seeing his power, swore =
allegiance to Muhammad and embraced Islam. The captured booty and =
weapons strengthened his army, and he captured Mecca just 18 months =
after Khaybar.=20
Expulsion of the Jews from Khaybar
The Jews were expelled from Khaybar in reign of caliph Umar (634-644). =
During his caliphate, the Muslims conquered vast territories in the =
Middle East, bringing to the Arabia large numbers of slaves, and the =
Jewish labor force was no longer necessary. The Jews of Khaybar settled =
in many areas throughout the Middle East, and they maintained a =
distinctive identity until the 12th century.
Jews of Khaybar in Arabic folklore
In later times, the Jews of Khaybar became popular figures in Arabic =
folklore. One of the stories went that on the road to Mecca many Jewish =
tent-dwellers lived in the desert in the neighborhood of many Arabs who =
robbed everybody passing by. The Jews and the Arabs then had an equal =
share in the booty. However, when a Jew came across, they offered him =
gifts and brought him to a safe place. Legends such as this one =
persisted well into the modern times.
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<DIV><STRONG>The Battle of Khaybar</STRONG> was fought in the year 629 =
between=20
Muhammad and his followers against the Jews living in Khaybar, an oasis =
located=20
150 kilometers (95 miles) from Medina in the area of Hejaz of the =
western part=20
of the Arabian peninsula in what is nowadays Saudi Arabia. Contemporary =
scholars=20
believe that Muhammad moved to attack Khaybar in order to raise his =
prestige=20
among his followers, as well as to capture booty to sustain subsequent=20
conquests. The battle ended with Muhammad's victory, which allowed him =
to gain=20
sufficient money, weapons, and support from local tribes to capture =
Mecca just=20
18 months after Khaybar.<BR><BR>The defeated Jews were killed, enslaved, =
or=20
reduced to serfdom. Muhammad's followers killed all the men and divided =
among=20
themselves the women of Banu Nadir Jewish tribe, which Muhammad had =
expelled=20
from Medina three years before the capture of Khaybar. Other Jews living =
in=20
Khaybar surrendered on condition of paying tribute to Muhammad and =
giving up all=20
their land to Muslims. Jews continued to live in the oasis for several =
more=20
years until they were finally expelled by caliph Umar. The imposition of =
tribute=20
upon the conquered Jews served as a precedent for provisions in the =
Islamic law=20
requiring the exaction of tribute known as jizya from dhimmis, i.e. =
non-Muslims=20
under Muslim rule, and confiscation of land belonging to non-Muslims =
into the=20
collective property of the Muslim community.=20
<BR><BR><B>Background<BR><BR>Khaybar in the 7th century</B><BR>In the =
7th=20
century, Khaybar was inhabited by the Jews, who pioneered the =
cultivation of the=20
oasis and made their living growing date palm trees, as well as through =
commerce=20
and craftsmanship, accumulating considerable wealth. Some objects found =
by the=20
Muslims in a redoubt at Khaybar =97 a siege-engine, 20 bales of Yemenite =
cloth,=20
and 500 cloaks =97 point out to an intense trade carried out by the =
Jews. While in=20
the past some scholars attempted to explain the presence of a =
siege-engine,=20
suggesting that it was used for settling quarrels among the families of =
the=20
community, nowadays the common opinion among academics is that it was =
stored in=20
a dep=F4t for future sale, in the same way that swords, lances, shields, =
and other=20
weaponry had been sold by the Jews to Arabs. Equally, the cloth and the =
cloaks=20
must have been intended for sale, as it is not conceivable that such a =
quantity=20
of luxury goods was kept for the exclusive use of the Jews. Seen in this =
light,=20
Muhammad's attacks against the Jews, first in Medina and then in =
Khaybar, has at=20
least some economic motivation, as is often the case of conflicts which =
are=20
superficially based on other (frequently cultural or religious) factors. =
<BR><BR>The oasis was divided into three regions: al-Natat, al-Shikk, =
and=20
al-Katiba, probably separated by natural diversions, such as the desert, =
lava=20
drifts, and swamps. Each of these regions contained several fortresses =
or=20
redoubts containing homes, storehouses and stables. Each fortress was =
occupied=20
by a separate family and surrounded by cultivated fields and =
palm-groves. In=20
order to improve their defensive capabilities, the fortresses were =
raised up on=20
hills or basalt rocks.<BR><BR><B>Muhammad and the Jews of =
Medina</B><BR>Over=20
several years after his arrival in Medina, Muhammad killed or expelled =
all Jews=20
from Medina. In 625, after the defeat in the Battle of Uhud at the hands =
of the=20
Meccan army, Muhammad expelled from Medina the Jewish tribe of Banu =
Nadir, who=20
found refuge in Khaybar. In 627, after the Battle of the Trench, =
Muhammad and=20
his followers killed all the men of Banu Qurayza, the only Jewish tribe=20
remaining in Medina at that time, and enslaved their women and children. =
<BR><BR><B>Muhammad's plans for attack</B><BR>Muhammad=92s reasoning =
behind his=20
decision to attack Khaybar was the necessity to raise his authority =
among his=20
followers, which had been under threat since the Treaty of Hudaybiyya. =
The=20
conquest of Khaybar would enable him to satisfy with ample booty his =
companions=20
who, having hoped to capture Mecca, were disappointed and discontented =
at the=20
treaty with the Meccans. In addition, the Hudaybiyya agreement gave him =
the=20
assurance of not being attacked by the Meccans during the =
expedition.<BR><BR>In=20
his preparations for the attack, Muhammad took steps to eliminate some =
of the=20
leaders of the Jews of Khaybar. His henchmen stole into Khaybar at night =
and=20
assassinated Abu al-Rafi ibn Abi al-Huqayq, one of the Khaybar =
chieftains.=20
Seeing the willingness of the Jews to negotiate with him, Muhammad sent =
envoys=20
to Khaybar inviting Usayr ibn Zarim, the war chief of Banu Nadir, to =
come to=20
Medina for talks. Unarmed, Umayr and thirty his companions set off to =
Medina=20
with Muhammad's emissaries. On the way, the Muslims attacked the =
defenseless=20
Jewish delegation, killing all but one of them, who managed to=20
escape.<BR><BR><B>Jewish defensive preparations</B><BR>The expulsion of =
Banu=20
Nadir from Median led the Jews of Khaybar to realize the danger they =
were in.=20
Huyayy ibn Akhtab, the chief of Banu Nadir, went with his son to join =
Meccans=20
and Bedouins besieging Medina during the Battle of the Trench. After the =
siege=20
of Medina proved unsuccessful, both Huyayy ibn Akhtab and his son =
defended Banu=20
Qurayza, who were besieged by Muhammad and his followers, and shared the =
fate of=20
the men of Banu Qurayza who were killed by the Muslims after the=20
surrender.<BR><BR>The war with Muhammad seemed imminent after the =
Muslims=20
massacred the Jewish delegation sent to negotiate with Muhammad. The =
Jews of=20
Khaybar entered into an alliance with the Jews of Fadak oasis, as well =
as with=20
Bedouins of Ghatafan tribe. However, the lack of central authority at =
Khaybar=20
prevented any further defensive preparations, and quarrels between =
different=20
families left the Jews disorganized. <BR><BR><B>Course of the=20
battle</B><BR>Muhammad and his followers marched on Khaybar in May 629.=20
According to different sources, the strength of his army varies from =
1,400 to=20
1,800 men and between 100 and 200 horses. Thanks to the speed and =
secrecy of the=20
march, the Muslims caught the Jews by surprise; the Jews realized they =
were=20
under attack only when they went out to work in the fields. As a result, =
the=20
Jews failed to mount centrally organized defense, and each family was =
left to=20
defend its own fortified redoubt. In addition, Muhammad bribed the =
Bedouin=20
allies of the Jews and prevented any further assistance from coming to=20
Khaybar.<BR><BR>Knowing the fate of Banu Qurayza, the Jews of Khaybar =
put up=20
fierce resistance, and Muslims were forced to take fortresses one by =
one. The=20
Jews, after a rather bloody skirmish in front of one of the fortresses, =
avoided=20
combat in the open country, and Muhammad had to resort to besieging and =
storming=20
the fortresses, hoping that the capitulation of the defenders should =
become=20
inevitable through lack of water and food. However, the besieged Jews =
managed to=20
organize, under the cover of darkness, a transfer of people and =
treasures from=20
one fortress to another depending on the situation to make their =
resistance more=20
effective.<BR><BR>The traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad report =
that in=20
one of the fortresses, first Abu Bakr, then Umar, took up the standard =
in the=20
hope of breaking down their resistance, by putting themselves at the =
head of the=20
attacks, but both failed. Muhammad then called to Ali, who killed a =
Jewish=20
chieftain with a sword-stroke, which split in two the helmet, the head =
and the=20
body of the victim. Having lost his shield, Ali lifted one of the doors =
of the=20
fortress from its hinges and defended himself with it, then used it to =
make a=20
bridge whereby the attackers gained access to the redoubt. The door was =
so heavy=20
that later eight men had to put it back in place. This incident (greatly =
exaggerated in the opinion of academic historians) became one of the =
reasons why=20
Muslims, especially Shi'ites, view Ali as the prototype of=20
heroes.<BR><BR>Although the Jews were unprepared for an extended siege, =
neither=20
were the Muslims, who also suffered from a lack of provisions. On one =
occasion,=20
Muslim warriors killed and cooked a score of donkeys, which escaped from =
a farm.=20
The incident led Muhammad to forbid to Muslims the meat of horses, =
mules, and=20
donkeys, unless consumption was forced by necessity. Muhammad ordered =
the=20
felling of 400 palms around one fortress to force its defenders to =
capitulate.=20
Finally, the Jews surrendered when after a month and a half of the =
siege, all=20
but two fortresses were captured by the Muslims.<BR><BR><B>After the=20
battle<BR>Terms of surrender</B>The Jews were able to negotiate an =
agreement=20
under which they were to remain in the oasis, cultivating their land. =
However,=20
from now on they were required to hand over one-half of the produce to =
the=20
Muslims. The land itself became the collective property of Muslims, =
which=20
effectively reduced the Jews of Khaybar to the status of serfs. In =
addition,=20
Muslims had the right to evict the Jews at any time, although modern =
historians=20
believe that the latter clause was an ex-post justification for the =
subsequent=20
expulsion of Jews from Khaybar. The agreement with the Jews of Khaybar =
served as=20
an important precedent for Islamic Law in determining the status of =
dhimmis,=20
i.e. non-Muslims who fell under Muslim rule.<BR><BR><B>Massacre of Banu=20
Nadir</B><BR>The agreement, however, did not cover the Banu Nadir tribe. =
Muslims=20
killed all the men of Banu Nadir and divided the women among themselves. =
Muhammad chose for himself Safiyya bint Huyayy, daughter of the killed =
Banu=20
Nadir chief Huyayy ibn Akhtab and widow of the treasurer of Banu Nadir =
whom=20
Muhammad's followers first tortured, demanding to reveal the location of =
the=20
hidden treasures of Banu Nadir, and then killed.<BR><BR><B>Poisoning of=20
Muhammad</B><BR>Muslim biographers of Muhammad tell a story that a =
Jewess of=20
Banu Nadir tribe attempted to poison Muhammad to avenge her slain =
relatives. She=20
poisoned a piece of lamb that she cooked for Muhammad and his companion, =
putting=20
especially much poison into the shoulder =97 Muhammad's favorite part of =
lamb. The=20
attempt on Muhammad's life failed because he reportedly spit out the =
meat,=20
feeling that it was poisoned, while his companion ate the meat and died. =
Muhammad's companions then reported that on his deathbed Muhammad said =
that his=20
illness was the result of that poison.<BR><BR><B>Strengthening of=20
Muhammad</B><BR>The victory in Khaybar greatly raised the status of =
Muhammad=20
among his followers and, local Bedouin tribes, who, seeing his power, =
swore=20
allegiance to Muhammad and embraced Islam. The captured booty and =
weapons=20
strengthened his army, and he captured Mecca just 18 months after =
Khaybar.=20
<BR><BR><B>Expulsion of the Jews from Khaybar</B><BR>The Jews were =
expelled from=20
Khaybar in reign of caliph Umar (634-644). During his caliphate, the =
Muslims=20
conquered vast territories in the Middle East, bringing to the Arabia =
large=20
numbers of slaves, and the Jewish labor force was no longer necessary. =
The Jews=20
of Khaybar settled in many areas throughout the Middle East, and they =
maintained=20
a distinctive identity until the 12th century.<BR><BR><B>Jews of Khaybar =
in=20
Arabic folklore</B><BR>In later times, the Jews of Khaybar became =
popular=20
figures in Arabic folklore. One of the stories went that on the road to =
Mecca=20
many Jewish tent-dwellers lived in the desert in the neighborhood of =
many Arabs=20
who robbed everybody passing by. The Jews and the Arabs then had an =
equal share=20
in the booty. However, when a Jew came across, they offered him gifts =
and=20
brought him to a safe place. Legends such as this one persisted well =
into the=20
modern times.<BR><!--IBF.ATTACHMENT_1772112--></DIV></BODY></HTML>
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